英语教学术语选摘(138).pdf
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1、792023十乐期(芯弟200期教师发展ForeignLanguageTeaching&Research in BasicEducation基础教育外语教学研究教师发展英语教学术语选摘(138)本刊编辑部Early InfluencesTwo academic influences on language teachingfrom the end of the nineteenth century onwards,werephilology and phonetics(Howatt,1984:169 81).Inphilology,the discovery of the common
2、 ancestry andrelationship of many European and Asian languagesraised doubts about the supposed superiority of Latinand Ancient Greek(Sampson,1980:13 33),and thisin turn initiated a movement away from the study ofthe classics,with its inevitable emphasis on writtenlanguage,as a model for language tea
3、ching.At thesame time,the new discipline of phonetics provideda systematic basis for the study of spoken language.Scholars of the self-styled Reform Movement at-tacked GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION teaching infavour of DIRECT METHOD and advocated greaterattention to spoken language(Howatt,1984:169 81).Semioti
4、cs and StructuralismFerdinand de Saussure s Course in GeneralLinguistics,first published in French in 1915,profoundly influenced and for many people definesthe scope of twentieth-century linguistics(Saussure,1974).Saussure regarded linguistics as a branch ofsemiotics,the study of signs.His programme
5、 assertedthe primacy of speech,and relegated writing to thestatus of a secondary representation(p.23).Thisquestionableprinciplehas foundanechointwentieth-century approaches to language teaching,most of which,in contrast to their classics-nfluenced antecedents,have shared an emphasis ondeveloping spo
6、ken rather than written skills.(Thisemphasis echoes popular expressions about languageproficiency which make no reference to writing:canyou speak Hindi?,we need an Arabic speaker,etc.)Saussure argued that the relationship between alinguistic unit(signifier)and its meaning(signified)is usually arbitr
7、ary and determined by its place inthe synchronic(i.e.present)system rather than byany resemblance between signifier and signified orby their diachronic(i.e.developmental)history.Saussure s treatment of communication as primarilyan act of encoding and decoding,dependent upon ashared conventional code
8、,has provided a theoreticalunderpinning to the assumption that the central coreof language learning is the acquisition of knowledgeof phonology,LEXIS and grammar rather than thedevelopment of an ability to use these systems incontext.This assumption was shared by almost alltwentieth-century approach
9、es to language teaching802023年第7 期(总第2 6 6 期)教师发展ForeignLanguageTeaching&Research in Basic Education基础教育外语教学研究教师发展beforetheadventofCOMMUNICATIVEMETHODOLOGY in the 1970s.These emphases on speech and the languagecode were perpetuated by the structural linguistics ofLeonard Bloomfield and Charles F
10、ries ascendantfrom the 1930s to the 1950s.Both men publishedworks on language teaching.Structural linguisticsstudied the place and distribution of units within alinguistic system,with lttle reference to meaning oruse.This approach,combined with the acceptance ofBEHAVIOURISM as a theory of learning,h
11、ad aprofound and long-lasting influence on languageteaching.Learning was seen as the acquisition ofstructural patternsthrough habit formation,besteffectedthroughthespokendrills,repeateddialoguesandpatternpracticesofAUDIOLINGUALISM.Chomskyan LinguisticsThe revolution in linguistics effected by NoamCh
12、omsky and his followers from the late 1950sonwards dethroned behaviourism,encouraging thebelief that language learning involves active mentalprocesses and is not simply the formation of habits.Chomsky stated explicitly that he did not believe hisideas should affect language teaching,yet inevitably,i
13、n the general change of beliefs about languagewhich he brought about,his work did exert aconsiderable indirect influence.The resultsforlanguageteaching,however,werenotradical.Chomskyanlinguisticssharedwithstructurallinguisticsanexclusiveattention to the formallanguage system,so the new influence did
14、 not resultin a movement away from the existing emphasis onphonology and grammar.The shift of attention was amore subtle one,awayfrom surface forms andbehaviour,towardsunderlyingmentalrepresentations,but was not one which had anymajor or long-lasting effect upon the actual practiceof teaching.One si
15、gnificant filter for Chomskyan ideas intolanguage teaching((which has caused changes inpractice)is second language acquisition theory(SLA).Although Chomskys ideas about languageacquisitionwereexplicitlyconcerned withtheacquisition of a first language by children,manySLAttheoristshaveesuggested1 that
16、 thesameacquisitionalprocesses(theprinciplesofUNIVERSAL GRAMMAR,the setting of parameters)may still be activated in learning a second languagein adulthood1(Krashen,1982;Cook,19 9 1).T h eemphasis is thus,as in structural approaches tolanguageteaching,stillupon a knowledge ofgrammar,though this time
17、upon a tacit knowledgewhosedevelopmentisnatural,uunaffected1byconscious explicit learning,internally generated,triggered by a favourable environment and followingauniversal route.Like children acquiringgthegrammar of a first language,learners are regarded aspassing through a number of approximative
18、systems,which are systematic but differ from the adultgrammar.As in first language acquisition,theseintermediate systems(or INTERLANGUAGES)are81教师发展Foreign Language Teaching&Research in Basic Education基础教育外语教学研究教师发展not seen as a phenomenon to be discouraged,but asa natural route to the desired e
19、nd state,and areregarded as primarily determined by universal factorsand only in a small part by first languageinterference(Selinker,1972).During the 1970s and1980sthesequasi-Chomskyanideasbecameextremely fashionable in language teaching(Krashenand Terrell,1983).Language learning was equatedwith the
20、 development of a mental representation ofthe grammar.The reconstruction of aspects of a firstlanguagelearningenvironmentwasfavoured.Grammar acquisition was believed to take placenaturally when the conscious focus of attention wason meaning rather than on form,when theatmosphere was friendly and rel
21、axed,and whenlearners were allowed to remain silent in the initialperiod.In recent years,SLA theorists have modifiedthis rather simplistic approach,incorporating notionsof INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES in SLA,variableroutes and rates and the role of explicit consciousknowledge.FunctionalLinguisticsandCommu
22、nicativeCompetenceThe schools and areas of linguistics discussedso far share a belief that language can be idealizedand studied without reference to its use and context.In Chomskyan theory(and the SLA theories whichderive from it)this premise is reinforced by thebelief that the mental representation
23、 and acquisitionof language is different and separate from that ofother types of knowledge,and is determined to alargedegreebyinnate,geneticallyinheritedelements.Other schools of linguistics,however,believe that language should not be separated fromits context either as a convenience for the purpose
24、sof study or because it is actually separate in themind.Functional linguistics,which is concerned withthe way in which language form is determined by itsuses,has a long history dating back to work by thePrague School in the 1920s,the work of J.R.Firthduring the 1940s and 1950s,and is continued mostp
25、rominently today by M.A.K.Halliday and hisfollowers.A functional1 approach is implicit insociolinguistics,whichstudiesttherelationshipbetween language and society.Neitherfunctionallinguisticsnorsociolinguistics,however,exertedmorethanamarginal influence on language teaching before thepublicationofDe
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