语言学资料(机密级).doc

定义（Definition）
Phonetics: It is the scientific study of speech sounds. It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received.
Phonology: It is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized.
Morphology: It is the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemes.
***Syntax: It deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence construction.
Semantics: It is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects. Words have several types of meaning. A sentence needs to be well formed both syntactically and semantically.
Pragmatics: It can be defined as the study of language in use. It deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.
Linguistics: It can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human languages. It deals with a wide range of linguistic phenomena, analyzes them, and makes general statements about them.
Language: It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

术语翻译（terms translation）

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linguistics 语言学
philology 语文学
phonetics 语音学
phonology 音位学
morphology 形态学
syntax 句法学
semantics 语义学
pragmatics 语用学
sociolinguistics 社会语言学
psycholinguistics 心理语言学
macrolinguistics 宏观语言学
stylistics 文体学
text linguistics 文本语言学
computational linguistics 计算语言学
cognitive linguistics 认知语言学
applied linguistics 应用语言学
language 语言
arbitrariness 随意性
duality 二重性
productivity 创造性
interchangeability 互换性
displacement 位移性
specialization 特殊性
cultural transmission 文化的传递性
synchronic linguistics 共时语言学
diachronic linguistics 历时语言学
langue 语言
parole 言语
competence 语言能力
performance 语言行为
psychological construct 心理构建
syntagmatic relations 横组合关系
paradigmatic relations 纵聚合关系
functionalism 功能主义
formalism 形式主义
speech organs 发音器官
articulatory phonetics 发声语音学
acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
auditory phonetics 听觉语音学
articulators 发音器官
voiced sounds 浊音
voiceless sounds 清音
variations of sounds 音的变体
elision 省音
assimilation 同化
phonemes 音位
minimal pairs 最小对立体
minimal sets 最小集合
free variation 自由变体
distinctive features 区别特征
syllables 音节
consonant clusters 辅音丛
suprasegmental features 超音段特征
stress 重音
intonation 语调
free morphemes 自由词素
bound morphemes 黏着词素
compounding 合成
derivation 派生
conversion 转类
backformation 逆构词
clipping 截短构词法
blending 混合
acronym 首字母拼音词
initialism 首字母拼写词
word classes 词类
structural analysis 结构分析
immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析
ideational function 意念功能
interpersonal function 人际功能
textual function 语篇功能
naming theory 命名理论
semantic triangle 语义三角
stimulus response theory 刺激反应论
sense 意义
reference 指称
conceptual meaning 概念意义
connotative meaning 内涵意义
social meaning 社会意义
affective meaning 情感意义
reflective meaning 反射意义
collocative meaning 搭配意义
thematic meaning 主位意义
semantic fields 语义场
componential analysis 成分分析
homonymy 同形异义
polysemy 一词多义
homophony 同音异形异义
synonymy 同义关系
antonymy 反义关系
hyponymy 上下义关系
meronymy 整体部分关系
entailment 蕴含关系
presupposition 前提关系
inconsistency 矛盾关系
implicature 暗含关系
micropragmatics 微观语用学
deixis 指示语
anaphora 回指
macropragmatics 宏观语用学
iteratives 重复词语
cleft sentences 断裂句
locutionary act 言内行为
illocutionary act 言外行为
perlocutionary act 言后行为
the Cooperative Principle 合作原则
conversational implicatures 会话含意
the Politeness Principle 礼貌原则
given information 已知信息
new information 新信息
topic 话题
comment 述题
contrast 对比
cohesion 衔接
substitution 替代
ellipsis 省略
conjunction 连词
lexical cohesion 词汇衔接
coherence 连贯
discourse markers 话语标记
adjacency 相邻对
preference structure 优选结构
presequences 前序列
language varieties 语言的变体
standard language 标准方言
dialects 方言
registers 语域
pidgins 洋泾浜
creoles 克里奥耳语
lingua franca 共通语
language planning 语言规划
diglossia 双言
bilingualism 双语制
multilingualism 多语制
code-switching 语码转换
linguistic taboos 语言禁忌
euphemisms 委婉语
categorization 范畴化
prototype theory 典型理论
levels of categorization 范畴的层次
conceptual metaphor 概念隐喻
conceptual domain 概念域
target domain 目标域
source domain 始发域；原域
conceptual metonymy 概念转喻
figures and ground 图形与背景
the frame and attention approach 框架与注意
iconicity 象似性
grammaticalization 语法化
lexical change and prototypicality 词汇演变
language acquisition 语言习得
the behaviorist approach 行为主义方法
the innateness approach 天赋取向法
second language acquisition 二语习得
contrastive analysis 对比分析
error analysis 错误分析
interlanguange 中介语
fossilization 语言停滞/僵化
language aptitude 语言学能
cognitive style 认知风格
field dependence 场依赖
field independence 场独立
personality traits 个性特征
introversion 内向
extroversion 外向
learning strategies 学习策略

辅音描述（consonants description）

Bilabial
Labio-dental
Dental
Alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
Stops
VL
p

t

k

VD
b

d

g

Fricatives
VL

f
θ
s
ʃ

h

VD

v
δ
z
ʒ

Affricates
VL

(tʃ)
tʃ

VD

(dʒ)
dʒ

Nasals
VD
m

n

ŋ

Liquids
VD

l, r

Glides
VD
w

j

重要概念区分（major conception distinguish）
1. synchronic and diachronic linguistics
Language can be studied at a given point in time or over time. When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.
2. langue and parole
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech. Langue is the code, and parole is the message.
3. competence and performance
Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.
4. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The latter means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.
5. functionalism and formalism
Functionalism refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. It considers the individual as a social being and investigates the way in which she/he acquires language and uses it in order to communicate with others in her or his social environment. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes on the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities.

画树形图（draw tree diagrams）

回答问题（answer the questions）
1. Q: Design features of language
A: (ⅰ) arbitrariness: This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.
(ⅱ) duality: It operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. This organization of language into two levels—a level of sounds which combine into a second level of larger units—is called duality or double articulation.
(ⅲ) productivity: This refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.
(ⅳ) interchangeability: This refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.
(ⅴ) displacement: It is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. By virtue of this feature man can talk about events, locations, and objects which are far removed from the present time and context.
(ⅵ) specialization: It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication.
(ⅶ) cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire language.
2. Q: The Cooperative Principle
A: The Cooperative Principle is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation.
Its maxims:
The Maxim of Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true, i.e.
(ⅰ) Do not say what you believe to be false;
(ⅱ) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
The Maxim of Quantity
(ⅰ) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange);
(ⅱ) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
The Maxim of Relation
Be relevant.
The Maxim of Manner
Be perspicuous, i.e.
(ⅰ) Avoid obscurity of expression;
(ⅱ) Avoid ambiguity;
(ⅲ) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity);
(ⅳ) Be orderly.
3. Q: Cohesion and coherence
A: Cohesion is an important field of study in discourse analysis. It refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. The key to the concept of coherence is not something which exists in the language, but something which exists in people. It is people who “make sense” of what they read and hear. They try to arrive at an interpretation which is in line with their experience of the way the world is.
4. Q: Individual differences in L2 acquisition
A: a. language aptitude;
b. cognitive style: field dependence and field independence;
c. personal traits;
d. learning strategies.
5. Q: Synonymy and antonymy
A: a. dialectal synonyms;
b. stylistic synonyms;
c. synonyms that differ in emotive and evaluative meaning;
d. collocational synonyms;
e. gradable antonymy;
f. complementary antonymy;
g. converse antonymy.
6. Q: Semantic meaning
A: a. meaning as naming;
b. meaning as concept;
c. meaning as behavior;
d. meaning as context;
e. meaning as truth conditions;
7. Q: Discourse analysis
A: It is the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. In discourse analysis one of the primary tasks is to explore the linguistic features which characterize discourses.
开放话题（open questions）
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context. The earliest known descriptive linguistics activities are said to have been Panini's Ashtadhyayi around 500 BCE with the analysis of Sanskrit.
The first subfield of linguistics is the study of language structure, or grammar. This focuses on the system of rules followed by the speakers (or hearers) of a language. It encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words), and phonology (sound systems). Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds and non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived.
The study of language meaning is concerned with how languages employ logical structures and real-world references to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as to manage and resolve ambiguity. This subfield encompasses semantics (how meaning is inferred from words and concepts) and pragmatics (how meaning is inferred from context).
Linguistics in its broader context includes evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at language processing in the brain; language acquisition, how children or adults acquire language; and discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations.
Although linguistics is the scientific study of language, a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to language and intersect with it. Semiotics, for example, is the general study of signs and symbols both within language and without. Literary theorists study the use of language in literature. Linguistics additionally draws on and informs work from such diverse fields as acoustics, anthropology, biology, computer science, human anatomy, informatics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, sociology, and speech-language pathology.