实用翻译教程.ppt

<p>单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,A Practical,Coursebook,on Translation,实用翻译教程,第一章：翻译概论,The definition of translation,广义的翻译指语言与语言，语言变体与语言变体，语言与非语言等的代码转换和基本信息的传达。,狭义的翻译是一种语言活动，是把一种语言表达的内容忠实地用另一种语言表达出来。,Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language(,源语言,),first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.,(Eugene A.,Nida,&amp;Charles R.Taber:,The Theory and Practice of Translation,1969),Scope of translation,In terms of language,Native languages into foreign languages,Foreign languages into native languages,In terms of the mode,Oral interpretation,口译,Written translation,笔译,Machine translation,计算计翻译,Human Translation,人工翻译,In terms of materials,Scientific materials,Translation of literary works,Translation of political essays,Business Translation,Translation of practical writing(,应用文,),In terms of disposal,full-text translation,全文翻译,abridged translation,节译，摘译,adapted translation,编译,翻译的标准,国内：,清代著名翻译家,严复,在其,译例言,中提出,“,译事三难，信、达、雅,”,。,鲁迅,曾说：,“,凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存原作的风姿,”,。,茅盾,指出，文学翻译的目标是“艺术创造性翻译”。,傅雷,提出了“神似”的文学翻译标准。,（见教材,P5,）,钱钟书,提出了“化境”的文学翻译标准。,（见教材,P5,）,国外,英国翻译理论家,泰特勒，,Alexander Fraser,Tytler,在,论翻译的原则,，,Essay on the Principles of Translation,一书中提出了三条翻译原则,.,（见教材,P5,）,美国著名翻译理论家,奈达,，,Eugene A.Nida,，,关于翻译标准的论述被概括为“忠实原文、易于理解、形式恰当、,吸引读者,”。,1.1 翻译的条件,1.1.1 掌握必要的翻译理论和技巧,语言学家吕叔湘说：“原稿纸旁放一词典，又放一文法书，左顾右盼才写上一行，那我们自不必去谈它”这决算不上翻译。,1.1.2 加强英汉两种语言的修养、拓宽知识面,1.要努力提高汉语的修养，多读经典的著作，学习地道规范的汉语；,2.要看一些英汉对照的文章；,3.一篇原著最好找到两种以上的译本，进行对比，从中学习。,如：,White House,“,白宫”而不是“白房子”,Foggy Bottom,“,雾谷”而不是“雾的尽头”,(,美国国务院,),1.1.3“译”精于勤(,Practice makes perfect),对原文的理解做到“三要”,1.要正确理解原文词义,He sleeps late.,2.,要掌握与两种语言相关的文化背景知识,3.,要弄清原文结构,译文表达做到“三不要”,1.不要逐字死译,I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry.(,Pride and Prejudice,),我还没有认识你一个月，就觉得象你这样一个人，在天下男人中我最不愿意和他结婚的就是你。,我认识你还不到一个月的时候，就觉得哪怕我一辈子找不到男人，也休想让我嫁给你。,2.不要使译文逻辑连贯失调,3.,不要炫耀文笔,1.2 背景知识与翻译,1.2.1 历史背景的差异与翻译,由于语言随社会的发展而发展，随社会的变化而变化，同一词语在不同的历史时期往往具有不尽相同的含义。如：,curiously（,好奇地）,wife（,妻子）,dearest,仔细地 主妇 最痛恨的,一些词语的产生，伴有特定的时代背景。如：,“,If that picture is genuine,Im a,Dutchman,!”,“,如果那张画是真迹，我就不是人！”,1.2.2 地理环境的差异与翻译,(1)英国的天气变化无常，阴雨天多，人们对天气便产生了一种特殊的感觉，因而喜欢谈论天气。,“,Lovely weather,isnt it?”,(2),英国是一个典型的海洋国家，因而与海洋有关的比喻和谚语就特别多。如：“,drink like a fish,as mute as a fish,as close as an oyster”,(3),汉语中说“吹牛”，翻译成,英语,就成了,-,“,talk horse”,(4),汉语中的“牛饮”到了英语中就变成了“,drink like a horse”,(5),中国,:,东风送暖,西风凛冽,;,而英国正好相反。,(6),比喻花钱浪费,大手大脚,英语是“,spend money like water”,而汉语是,-,“挥金如土”。,(7)carry coals to Newcastle,运煤到纽卡索,(,做徒劳无益的事情,),英语中涉及宗教的词语要比任何其他语种都多，同时宗教典故之丰富在世界语林中也是独占鳌头。,John can be relied on.He,eats no fish.,诚实可靠,约翰为人可靠，他很忠诚。,Speak of angels,and you will hear their wings;talk of the devil,and hes sure to appear.,说曹操，曹操到。,Love is blind.,情人眼里出西施。,1.2.3 宗教信仰的差异与翻译,1.2.4 风俗习惯的差异与翻译,You look darker after the holidays.,你度假回来看起来,黑多了。,你度假回来看起来,更健康了,。,She has been a widow only for six months.,她才当了六个月的寡妇,。,她丈夫去世才六个月。,All the children have got married.,孩子们都结婚走了。,老儿子娶媳妇大事完毕。,同一语种在不同的地域、不同的文化中因不同的环境和风俗习惯的影响而具有不同的特点。,Table:(v.),搁置(,American English),“,把 列入日程”(,British English),Tea:,晚饭(,Australian E.);,大麻（,American Slang,）,1.2.5 社会政治的差异与翻译,一些词语的意义，有时与社会政治密切相关。就是说，社会制度相同，有关文化之间的差异就比较少；社会制度不同，差异就相对地多一些。如：,working class,Peasant,Farmer,Propaganda,宣传；,鼓吹,Exploit,开发利用、获取利润,剥削,1.2.6 文化象征的差异与翻译,文化象征反映一个民族的感情色彩。对待同一事物，不同民族的文化感情色彩可能完全不同,:,Dragon,bat,dog,不同文化背景中，人们还常常用不同的事物表达相同的思想。,Work like a horse,像老黄牛一样干活，辛勤工作,As strong as a horse,壮如牛,As stupid as a goose,蠢得像头猪,Wet like a drown rat,湿如落汤鸡,An interpreter(translator)has to know everything of something and something of everything.,Exercise:Translate the following passage,From there I could see the whole valley below,the fields,the river,and the village.It was all very beautiful,and the sight of it filled me with longing.,From there I could see the whole valley below,the fields,the river,and the village.It was all very beautiful,and the sight of it filled me with longing.,从那里，我可以看见下面的整个山谷，那田野、河流和村庄。这一切非常美丽，见到后使我心里充满了渴望。,从这里望下去，整个山谷一览无遗，只见那田野、河流和村庄，全都美不胜收，真叫我心驰神往。,1.3 翻译的过程,1.3.1 准备阶段：,弄清楚作者的风格、文字特点、同一作家的其他作品、作家的身世以及其写作的社会背景等。,1.3.2,理解阶段：,翻译的理解是以忠实地表达为目标的，因此，它要求对原作的理解尽可能全面、细致和深入；“不求甚解”的情况在翻译理解中是不允许的。,理解主要是通过原文的上下文来进行，因为：,“,No context,no text.”,上下文,/,语境,(context),指词语、句子、段落等与其所处的整个篇章或整部作品的其它部分的关系。上下文分析在翻译的理解阶段具有十分重要的意义。,文章中大大小小的语言单位之间，处在特定的语义环境中，一般都存在着相互关联、交织、修饰、限定的关系，即上下文关系。,英国著名语言学家,Randolph Quirk,说过：“我们只有见到一个词在上下文中实际运用了的时侯，才能谈这个词的意义。”,一.确定词语在语境中的意义,Seat oneself in a wooden chair,Accept a university chair,Chair the board meeting,Condemned to the chair,坐在木椅上,同意在大学里执教,主持董事会,被处电刑,Milk the cow milk the bull,挤牛奶 徒劳之举,1.,I never had much in seeing you.,There was no love lost between us,at any time.,2.We grumble(,抱怨,)a little now and then,to be sure.But,theres no love lost between us.,1.我向来不大想看到你，我们两人之间大概什么时候都不曾有过好感。,2.当然啦，我们有时也免不了争论几句，但是我们还是相亲相爱。,3.I am afraid photograph,is not my cup of tea,.,二.弄清原文的逻辑关系,由于不善于逻辑思考，对原文理解歧义，闹出笑话，历来是翻译的一大忌讳。,1.The old man informed us that his wife had had thirteen children,one,in,every month of the year and one over besides.,老人风趣地告诉我们，他的妻子生了13个孩子，每月生一个还多了一个。,老人风趣地告诉我们，他的妻子生了13个孩子，如果用一年十二个月的名字给他们取名的话，还多出来一个。,2.,when he was a young fellow in the sixties.,当他还是个60多岁的年轻小伙子时。,在60年代，他还年轻时。,3.,The object did not move because I pushed it.,因为我推了它，该物体才没有移动。,不是因为我推了它，该物体才移动。,4.Out from the doghouse and down the ramp ran Dolly followed by four little balls of fur.,三.理解原文的深层结构,有些词从字面上看非常简单，但由于对原文所涉及的客观事物、典故或专门术语不理解，所以就译不出来，乃至出错。,1.,Last night I heard him driving his pigs to market.(drive ones pigs to market),昨晚我听到他把猪赶到市场上去。,昨晚我听到他鼾声如雷，声音就像把猪赶到市场一样。,2.General Smith and my father are,on first name basis,.,史密斯将军和我的父亲都是在第一名的基础上。,史密斯将军和我的父亲是直呼名字的知交。,3.,Keep your chin up.“,抬起头”,不要失去勇气，振作起来。,(,不气馁,),4.,Far from eye,far from heart.,眼不见心不烦,别久情疏,5.Sleep as sound as a log of wood.,睡得象段木头。,睡得很沉（香）。,1.3.3 表达阶段,一.表达的方法（,The Methods of Translation,）,表达的方法有直译(,literal translation),和意译(,free translation),。,直译,是既保持原文内容、又保持原文形式的翻译方法。,意译,也称为自由翻译,它是只保持原文内容、不保持原文形式的翻译方法。,直译与意译是相互协调、互相渗透的,他们互为补充、不可分割。,在翻译过程中,二者有其各自的功能，因此我们应该把直译与意译相结合。,钱歌川先生说：“翻译没有固定的规则和方法”。我们只能在实践中积累经验,寻找出一些规律,把直译和意译自由地运用到翻译实践中。（见教材,P37,）,Examples,I was late for class yesterday.I had to open the door and go in before everybody.,我只好在大家望着我的情况下推门进去。,我只得在众目睽睽下推门进去。,没办法，我只好因硬着头皮推门进去。,Despair seized him when he was on the rocks.(on the rocks,破产,),当他经济困难的时候，他绝望极了。,经济困难使他陷入绝望之中。,那时，他经济拮据，一筹莫展。,He was seized with the despairing sense of helplessness.,他被束手无策的绝望感抓住了。,他忽然产生了束手无策的绝望感。,The,communique,stirred a belated reaction.,公报引起了过晚的反应。,公报发表后迟迟才有反应。,注意：,直译死译（,word-for-word translation or dead translation,）,1.,街道,妇女应动员起来打扫卫生：,Women,in the street,should be called on to do some cleaning.,(“In the street”should be replaced by“,in the community,”.),2.,她一大早起床，进城，见到了她的,公爹,：,She got up early,went to the town and saw her,public father,.,(Public father should be,father-in-law,.),直译的例子：,armed to the teeth,武装到牙齿,;,全副武装,chain reaction,连锁反应,;,gentlemens agreement,君子协定,;,one country,two systems,一国两制,;,paper tiger,纸老虎,;,cold war,冷战,hot line,热线,hot girls in cool suit/spicy girls,辣妹,black market,黑市,The three religions and the nine schools of thought,三教九流,;,Blood is thicker than water.,血浓于水。,breathe ones last,断气,;,go to ones external rest,安息,;,the long sleep,长眠,;,see Marx,见马克思,;,go to heaven,上天堂,;,blow out the candles,吹灯拔蜡,Go west,上西天,;,He walked at the head of the funeral procession,every now and then wiped his,crocodile tears,with a big handkerchief.,他走在送葬队伍的前头，还不时用一条大手绢抹去那,鳄鱼的眼泪,。,The Senate Foreign Relations Committee today extended,the olive branch,to the Clinton Government by pleading for cooperation in developing foreign policy.,参议院外交委员会今天向克林顿政府伸出了,橄榄枝,，要求在发展外交政策上合作。,几种需要意译的情况：,1.,含有典故的文化习语,It rains,cats and dogs,.,大雨滂沱。,at sixes and sevens,乱七八糟，七嘴八舌,Talk of the devil,and hes sure to appear.,说曹操，曹操到。,2.,必须按照汉语的语言习惯表达,Every,dog,has his day.,人人都有得意的日子。,One boy is a boy,two boys half a boy,three boys no boy.,一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。,3.,适当调整转换,二.正确处理直译与意译的关系,直译与意译这两种方法并无优劣之分，也并非是对立的，而是相辅相成的，关键在于如何正确使用他们。如：,1.When I want your opinion,Ill ask for it.,当我需要你的意见时，我会问你的。,请不要插嘴。,2.You are late for the last time.,这是你最后一次迟到了。,你被解雇了。,3.,Dont cross the bridge till you get to it.,到了桥边才过桥。,不必担心太早。,不要杞人忧天。,车到山前必有路；船到桥头自然直。,4.Little fish does not eat big fish.,小鱼吃不了大鱼。,胳膊拧不过大腿。,5.What the tongue says,the neck pays for.,舌头说话，脖子还帐。,舌头闯祸，脖子遭殃。,祸从口出。,6.What was hatched a hen must not try to be a rooster!,孵出来是母鸡就别想冒充公鸡。,生来是个女人就别想冒充男人。,认命吧，不要做和自己的性别、身份等不适宜的事情。,7.Theres no pot so ugly it cant find a lid.,没有丑到配不上一个盖子的罐子。,罐儿再丑，配个盖子不发愁。,丑女不愁嫁。,8.Every life has its roses and thorns.,人生道路既铺满鲜花，又布满荆棘。,生活总是有苦有乐。,至于哪些形象词汇可以作直译，哪些需意译，在相当程度取决于汉语遣词造句的习惯。同一个物质名词在此句可直译，在彼句则需意译。如：,His novel is a,mirror,of the times.,The newspaper claims to be the,mirror,of public opinions.,他的小说是时代的一面镜子。,该报宣称忠实反映了公众的意见。,当然，我们所说的想方设法维系原文的具体性和形象性是以统筹“信达雅”之间的辨证关系为先决条件的，并不是一味地求形象而偏废其他翻译要义的“削足适履”式的硬译。,What is learned in the,cradle,is carried to the,grave,.,一个人在摇篮中所学的东西会带到坟墓中去,少时所学，到老不忘。,It was the best of times,it was the worst of times;,it was the age of wisdom,it was the age of foolishness;,it was the epoch of belief,it was epoch of incredulity;,it was the season of the Light,it was the season of Darkness;,it was the spring of Hope,it was the winter of Despair;,we had everything before us,we had nothing before us;,we were all going to Heaven,we were all going direct the other way.,-,The Tale of Two Cities,这是最美好的时期，也是最糟糕的时期；,这是智慧的年代，也是愚蠢的年代；,这是充满信仰的时代，也是顾虑重重的时代；,这是光明的季节，也是黑暗的季节；,这是富有希望的春天，也是充满绝望的冬天；,我们拥有一切，我们一无所有；,我们正笔直走上天堂，我们正笔直走下地狱。,第二章：英汉词法翻译,英汉两种语言都有,一词多类,和,一词多义,的现象。一词多类就是指一个词往往属于几个词类，具有几个不同的意义,;,一词多义就是同一个词在同一词类中又往往有几个不同的词义。在英译汉的过程中，我们在弄清原句结构后，就要善于运用选择和确定原句中关键词词义的技巧，以使所译语句自然流畅，完全符合汉语习惯的说法,;,选择确定词义通常可以从两方面着手：,2.1.1 根据词类,/,词性确定词义,1.,Like charges repel;unlike charges attract.,2.He likes mathematics more than physics.,3.Like knows like.,4.Like enough it will snow.,1.相同的电荷相斥，不同的电荷相吸。,2.他喜欢数学甚于喜欢物理。,3.英雄识英雄。惺惺相惜。,4.,很可能要下雪了。,2.1 词义的选择,2.1.2 根据语境确定词义,一.上下文,根据上下文联系以及词在句中的搭配关系来选择和确定词义。,We hope Mr.White will,not forget himself,gone are the days when a representative of a large country in UN.may do whatever he likes.,我们希望怀特先生不要忘乎所以，在联合国里一个大国代表可以为所欲为的日子已经一去不复返了。,We hope that our most respected Secretary General will,not forget himself,his poor health is known to everybody.,我们希望最可敬的秘书长先生不要过于操劳，要多多保重,他的健康状况欠佳是众所周知的。,He is,the last,man to come.,他是最后来的。,He is,the last,person for such a job.,他最不配干这个工作。,He should be,the last,man to blame.,怎么也不该怪他。,This is,the last,place where I expected to meet you.,我怎么也没料到会在这个地方见到你。,二.地点(,place),语境中的地点是话语所产生的地点。同一词语出现在不同的地点，其含义往往不同。如：,1.,The boy is drawing a cart.,那男孩正在画一辆大车。,那男孩正在拉一辆大车。,2.,Its time to go aboard.,该上车了。/该上飞机了。/该上船了。,三.时间(,time),His daughter went to London last autumn.,他的女儿是今年秋天去的伦敦。,他的女儿是去年秋天去的伦敦。,四.话题(,topic),话题即交际双方所谈及的内容。同一词语在不同的话题中具有语义上的专门化。如：,messenger:,信使；一种传递信息的化学物质（遗传工程学）,carrier:,携带者；带菌体,病媒（医学、生物学）,shuttle:,梭子；航天飞机（航天）,base:,In business:,本金,In linguistics:,词素,In painting:,底涂,In mathematics:,底边，底面,In military science:,根据地,五.交际方式,(medium),交际方式即语言传播的方式和媒介，有口头和书面之分，文白之差别。因而要确定原文的文体和风格后再选择恰当的词义。,1.,He wrote a letter to his friend.,2.Premier,Wen,wrote a letter to American President.,3.Mary received a love letter.,a letter of introduction,a letter of recommendation,a love letter,a suicide letter,a“thank-you”letter,a letter of condolence,a“Dear John”letter,a get-well letter,a political“Dear John”,介绍信,推荐信,情书,绝命信,感谢信,唁函,(女孩写给男孩的）绝交信,(祝病人康复的）慰问信,政治上的绝交信,2.1.3 根据汉语习惯搭配确定词义,英语中有些词在同一词类中、具有相同意义的情况下，和不同的词搭配，译成汉语时还要根据与它搭配的词而选择最符合汉语习惯的词义。,1.He has,great,ears and eyes.2.He has,great,wisdom,experience and knowledge.,他耳聪目明。,他有无穷的智慧，丰富的经验和渊博的知识。,1.,He is a good chess player.,2.It is a good dinner.,3.She speaks good English.,4.I have done a good days work.,5.It was a girl with good manners.,6.The younger sister wants to have the good half of the bread.,1.他棋艺高超。,2.那是一顿丰盛的晚餐。,3.她英语讲得很流利。,4.我干了整整一天的活儿。,5.这是一位举止得体的姑娘。,6.妹妹要那一大半面包。,He proved to be a,good,listener.,1.他在课上注意听讲。,2.他是个遵守公共秩序的观众。,3.他善于听取群众的意见。,I am sure I will,beat,John this time.,a.,我这次肯定会（在比赛中）战胜约翰。,（,I am sure I will defeat John this time.,）,b.,我这次肯定要打约翰一顿。,(I am sure I will hit John this time.),1.,Soft pillow,2.Soft music,3.Soft cushion,4.Soft wood,5.Soft money,6.Soft drink,7.Soft breeze,8.Soft light,9.Soft voice,10.Soft fire,11.Soft hat,12.Soft words,13.Soft answer,14.Soft goods,15.Soft heart,16.Soft water,17.a soft glance,1.软枕,2.轻柔的音乐,3.靠垫,4.软木,软质木材,5.纸币，支票,6.不含酒精的饮料,7.和风，柔和的微风,8.柔光,9.低声,10.文火,11.呢帽,12.和蔼的话,13.委婉的回答,14.毛织品,纺织品,15.软心肠,16.软水,17.,充满深情的一瞥,a,hard,assignment,困难的任务,a,hard,blow,猛烈的一击,a long,hard,winter,漫长而严酷的冬季,drives a,hard,bargain,进行一场苛刻的交易,a,hard,life,令人无法忍受的生活,hard,luck,坏运气,the,hard,sciences,严密的科学,hard,merchandise,耐用的商品,hard,liquor,烈酒,Times are,hard,.,时世艰难。,as,hard,as nails,铁石心肠,;,冷酷无情,hard,evidence,有力的证据,a,pretty,fortune,很大的一笔财产,pretty,up the house,装饰房屋,a,pretty,picture,漂亮的画卷,pretty,music,优美的乐曲,in a,pretty,state of affairs,处境,情况,不妙,Everybodys business is nobodys business.,三个和尚没水吃.,翻译下列短语，注意选择符合汉语习惯的搭配,Enjoy free medical care,Enjoy advantages,Enjoy national protection,Enjoy mass support,Enjoy access to Internet,Enjoy prosperity,Enjoy a revival,Enjoy an economical honey-moon,Enjoy a fine day,Enjoy constant attention,享受公费医疗,具备优越条件,受到国家保护,得到广大群众支持,有机会进入国际互联网,处于繁荣时期,重振雄风,在经济上打得火热,天气晴朗,一直为人们所关注,Exercise,（,1,）,She shook his,hand,and went upstairs.,（,2,）,Mary writes a good,hand,.,（,3,）,His,hand,is out.,（,4,）,My,hands,are tied.,（,5,）,The,hands,of a clock tell the time.,（,6,）,The company was short of,hands,.,（,7,）,We have the situation well in,hand,.,（,8,）,I had no,hand,in the matter.,（,9,）,Give me a,hand,.,（,10,）,They give the film star a big,hand,.,Exercise,（,1,）,She shook his hand and went upstairs.,（,2,）,Mary writes a good hand.,（,3,）,His hand is out.,（,4,）,My hands are tied.,（,5,）,The hands of a clock tell the time.,（,6,）,The company was short of hands.,（,7,）,We have the situation well in hand.,（,8,）,I had no hand in the matter.,（,9,）,Give me a hand.,（,10,）,They give the film star a big hand.,她跟他握了一下手，就上楼了。,玛丽的字写得不错。,他的技能荒疏了。,我的权力极其有限。,钟表的指针能够指示时间。,那家公司缺少人手。,我们能把握好局势。,我跟这件事毫无关系。,帮我一下。,他们热烈鼓掌欢迎这位电影明星。,英汉互译翻译技巧,-,词义的引申,英汉两种语言在表达方式上存在着许多差异。有时一个单词在词典上找不到合适的词义。如果死译、硬译，不仅会使译文生硬晦涩，词不达意，而且还有可能弄巧成拙，引起误解。在这种情况下，就必须采用灵活的手法，从一个词或词组的字面意思加以,引申,，然后再选出比较恰当的汉语来表达。此外，有些词还随着时代的发展而被赋予了新的含义，翻译时就必须采用词义引申的办法。例如：,Success is often just an idea away.,a.,成功往往只是一个念头的距离。,b.,成功往往只是一念之差。,c.,成功与否往往只是一念之差。,A book,tightly shut,is but a block of paper.,a.,一本书，紧紧合上，只是一叠纸。,b.,一本书，如果紧紧合上不读，只是一叠纸。,c.,一本书，如果紧紧合上不读，只是一叠废纸。,d.,闲置之书只是一叠废纸。,词义引申,是我们英译汉时常用的技巧之一。翻译时，有时会遇到某些词在英语辞典上找不到适当的词义，如果任意硬套或逐词死译，就会使译文生硬晦涩，不能确切表达原意，甚至会造成误解。这时就应根据上下文和逻辑关系，从该词的根本含义出发，进一步加以引申，引申时，往往可以从以下几个方面来加以考虑。,具体化,是指在译文中，用所指意义较窄的词或词组替换原文中所指意义较广的词或词组。如：,1.,The Great Wall is a,must,for most foreign visitors to Beijing.,2.Two years working is a,must,to those who want to take the entrance examination for MBA.(Master of Business Administration),1.,长城是任何一</p>