通用英语语法.pptx

17Universal Grammar2n nSlides on the net at:n nhttp:/http-server.carleton.ca/ecorazza/n nhttp:/http-http:/http-server.carleton.ca/ecorazza/online_courses/Mind_World_andserver.carleton.ca/ecorazza/online_courses/Mind_World_and_knowledge/_knowledge/3Chomskys Epiphenomenalism about Languagen nLanguage Language vs.vs.GrammarGrammar“Grammar”is a precise definite term while“language”“Grammar”is a precise definite term while“language”is a vague and derivative term which we could well is a vague and derivative term which we could well dispense of,without much loss.dispense of,without much loss.The grammar in someone mind/brain is real while The grammar in someone mind/brain is real while language is not.language is not.4n nThe aim of linguistics can be summarized by four The aim of linguistics can be summarized by four questions.questions.1 1.What constitutes knowledge of language?What constitutes knowledge of language?2 2.How is such knowledge acquired?How is such knowledge acquired?3 3.How is such knowledge put to use?How is such knowledge put to use?4 4.What are the physical mechanisms that serve as the What are the physical mechanisms that serve as the material basis?material basis?5Deep vs.Surface Structuren nPort Royal Grammar(1660)Port Royal Grammar(1660)It is heavily influenced by Descartes.It is heavily influenced by Descartes.It aims to propose the general form of any possible It aims to propose the general form of any possible grammar.grammar.In so doing it elaborates the universal structure In so doing it elaborates the universal structure underlying the“natural manner in which we express underlying the“natural manner in which we express our thoughts”.our thoughts”.6n nThe The inner/outerinner/outer aspect of language aspect of languageAccording to Port Royal grammarians we must According to Port Royal grammarians we must distinguish between language having an inner and an distinguish between language having an inner and an outer aspect.outer aspect.Hence we distinguish between a sentence Hence we distinguish between a sentence quaqua expression of a thoughtexpression of a thought and and the physical shapethe physical shape of a of a sentence(i.e.an utterance).sentence(i.e.an utterance).To show the structure of the mind the grammar should To show the structure of the mind the grammar should reflect reflect properties of all mindsproperties of all minds,it should be,it should be universaluniversal.7n nMental GrammarMental GrammarThe deep structure is often only implicit and does not The deep structure is often only implicit and does not get expressed.It is only represented in the mind.get expressed.It is only represented in the mind.The same deep structure can be realized differently in The same deep structure can be realized differently in different languages(e.g.:“Video canem currentum”and different languages(e.g.:“Video canem currentum”and“Je vois un chien qui court”).“Je vois un chien qui court”).The rules of this grammar are not represented in the The rules of this grammar are not represented in the language user:they are simply there.Yet they must be language user:they are simply there.Yet they must be“learned”.But see poverty of the stimulus argument.“learned”.But see poverty of the stimulus argument.8n nTransformation RulesTransformation RulesThere are transformation rules operating from deep to There are transformation rules operating from deep to surface structure.It is the linguists job to figure out surface structure.It is the linguists job to figure out these rules.these rules.The grammarians of Port Royal are the first to The grammarians of Port Royal are the first to recognize the two systems of rules:recognize the two systems of rules:1.1.A base system generating A base system generating deep structure.deep structure.2.2.A A transformational systemtransformational system mapping these deep mapping these deep structures into surface structure.structures into surface structure.9UG n nUG corresponds to the deep structure.Since it is the UG corresponds to the deep structure.Since it is the expression of though,it is common to all languages.expression of though,it is common to all languages.It is thus universal.Hence Universal Grammar,UG.It is thus universal.Hence Universal Grammar,UG.The transformation rules converting the deep structure The transformation rules converting the deep structure into surface structure may differ from language to into surface structure may differ from language to language.language.Different outputs can correspond to the same inner Different outputs can correspond to the same inner structure.structure.10n nPort RoyalPort RoyalWithin the Cartesian tradition exemplified by the Within the Cartesian tradition exemplified by the grammarians of Port Royal,the deep structure is what grammarians of Port Royal,the deep structure is what constitutes the meaning(sense)in the mind.constitutes the meaning(sense)in the mind.It can be transmitted in different way(e.g.:It can be transmitted in different way(e.g.:active/passive).active/passive).E.g.:different languages or different surface structures E.g.:different languages or different surface structures transmit the same meaning/sense which is a mental transmit the same meaning/sense which is a mental entity.entity.11n nNowadaysNowadays UG means the UG means the initial stateinitial state of a language of a language learner.learner.It is the“innate”(genetically transmitted)aspect of It is the“innate”(genetically transmitted)aspect of grammatical rules;the grammatical rules;the language instinctlanguage instinct(Pinker).(Pinker).It is that aspect of the human mind that causes one to It is that aspect of the human mind that causes one to learn the language.learn the language.UG UG quaqua initial state is initial state is biologically determinedbiologically determined.As such,it does not belong to a specific language.As such,it does not belong to a specific language.12n nUG need not be supposed to be what is universal UG need not be supposed to be what is universal among languagesamong languages(see Jackendoff 2002:72ff.).(see Jackendoff 2002:72ff.).It is merely the It is merely the human human capacitycapacity,i.e.,the,i.e.,the initial stateinitial state,allowing one to learn allowing one to learn a a language.language.The aspects of the initial sate one ends up using in ones The aspects of the initial sate one ends up using in ones learning periods depends on the stimuli/input.learning periods depends on the stimuli/input.Languages(inputs)affect the development of the initial Languages(inputs)affect the development of the initial state and thus the outputs one ends up producing(cf.state and thus the outputs one ends up producing(cf.switches metaphor explaining the learning of switches metaphor explaining the learning of phonetics).phonetics).13n nInnateInnateWe do not necessarily mean that it is present at birth or We do not necessarily mean that it is present at birth or in an embryo.in an embryo.It rather means that it It rather means that it automatically appearsautomatically appears during during the development,regardless on whether it is present at the development,regardless on whether it is present at birth or not.birth or not.It does not mean that it is free from the input of the It does not mean that it is free from the input of the environment.E.g.vision capacity.environment.E.g.vision capacity.14n nDeep Deep vsvs.Surface Structure,and Creativity.Surface Structure,and CreativityThe deep/surface structure distinction is what helps The deep/surface structure distinction is what helps explaining linguistic creativity.explaining linguistic creativity.The Port Royals distinction between deep and surface The Port Royals distinction between deep and surface structure implicitly contains recursive devices allowing structure implicitly contains recursive devices allowing for infinite uses of the finite means that it disposes.for infinite uses of the finite means that it disposes.The deep structure is what gets represented in the mind The deep structure is what gets represented in the mind when a sentence is produced/heard(see LF).when a sentence is produced/heard(see LF).15n nLinguistic creativityLinguistic creativity and the and the argument for mental argument for mental grammargrammarThe expressive variety of language use implies that the The expressive variety of language use implies that the brain of a linguistically competent user contains a set of brain of a linguistically competent user contains a set of unconscious grammatical principles.unconscious grammatical principles.(cf.Jackendoff(cf.Jackendoff R.1994.R.1994.Patterns in the MindPatterns in the Mind.Basic Books.Basic Books Harper Collins,New YorkHarper Collins,New York:6).:6).16n nLOTLOTIn adopting the language of thought hypothesis,LOT In adopting the language of thought hypothesis,LOT(or Mentalese)the argument for mental grammar can be(or Mentalese)the argument for mental grammar can be stated along the compositional principle for thoughts,or stated along the compositional principle for thoughts,or what Fodor characterizes as the productivity of thought.what Fodor characterizes as the productivity of thought.The classical argument that mental states are complex adverts to The classical argument that mental states are complex adverts to the productivity of the attitudes The LOT story is,of course,a the productivity of the attitudes The LOT story is,of course,a paradigm of this sort of explanation,since it takes believing to paradigm of this sort of explanation,since it takes believing to involve a relation to a syntactically structured object for which a involve a relation to a syntactically structured object for which a compositional semantics is assumed.(Fodor Jpositional semantics is assumed.(Fodor J.1987.PsychosemanticsPsychosemantics.MIT:147-8).MIT:147-8)17n nLogical Logical vsvs.Grammatical Form.Grammatical FormArnauld&Nicole(in Arnauld&Nicole(in PortPort Royal LogicRoyal Logic 1662:160)1662:160)highlight the difference between deep(logical)structure highlight the difference between deep(logical)structure and surface(grammatical)structure.and surface(grammatical)structure.In:In:(1)(1)Now few pastors at the present time are Now few pastors at the present time are ready to give their life for their flocksready to give their life for their flocksthe grammatical(surface)structure is affirmative,while the grammatical(surface)structure is affirmative,while its underlying structure(LF)is negative.its underlying structure(LF)is negative.18(1)contains the implicit negative sentence(“it contains(1)contains the implicit negative sentence(“it contains this negation in its meaning”):this negation in its meaning”):(1a)(1a)Several pastors at the present time are not ready to Several pastors at the present time are not ready to give their lives for their flocksgive their lives for their flocksThe same with:The same with:(2)(2)Come see meCome see mewhose deep structure is:whose deep structure is:(2a)(2a)I order/beg you to come see meI order/beg you to come see me19n nAccording to the Port Royal grammarians there is a According to the Port Royal grammarians there is a transformationtransformation enabling to go from(1a/2a)(deep enabling to go from(1a/2a)(deep structure)to(1/2)(surface structure).structure)to(1/2)(surface structure).We have hidden underlying structure and a grammatical We have hidden underlying structure and a grammatical transformations operating between the deep structure transformations operating between the deep structure(LF)and the surface(or grammatical)structure.(LF)and the surface(or grammatical)structure.E.g.:the surface structure“Only the friends of God are E.g.:the surface structure“Only the friends of God are happy”is a transformation of the deep structure“The happy”is a transformation of the deep structure“The friends of God are happy”friends of God are happy”andand“all other who are not “all other who are not friend of God are not happy”.friend of God are not happy”.20n nUnderstandingUnderstandingTo understand a sentence one must grasp the sense,i.e.To understand a sentence one must grasp the sense,i.e.the meaning(“natural order”)the speaker has in mind.the meaning(“natural order”)the speaker has in mind.One grasps it in reconstructing its meaning,i.e.in One grasps it in reconstructing its meaning,i.e.in coming to entertain its underlying structure(LF)and coming to entertain its underlying structure(LF)and the meanings of the single words.the meanings of the single words.The fundamental principles at work are The fundamental principles at work are reorderingreordering and and ellipsisellipsis which enable the hearer to recover in her mind which enable the hearer to recover in her mind the meaning the speaker has in her.the meaning the speaker has in her.21Linguistic explanation and descriptionn nGrammaire GnraleGrammaire Gnrale(Port Royal)(Port Royal)Cartesian linguistics did not confine to a mere Cartesian linguistics did not confine to a mere description of a language and its grammar.description of a language and its grammar.It aimed to capture the universal(mental)structure It aimed to capture the universal(mental)structure underlying languages.underlying languages.22n nPort Royal grammar,like modern(Chomskys inspired)Port Royal grammar,like modern(Chomskys inspired)linguistics can be viewed as a branch of psychology or linguistics can be viewed as a branch of psychology or cognitive sciences.cognitive sciences.The general grammar is a kind of universal grammar.The general grammar is a kind of universal grammar.As such,it differs from the special grammar which is As such,it differs from the special grammar which is language specific.It differs from the grammar of language specific.It differs from the grammar of English,Chinese,etc.English,Chinese,etc.23n nLinguistics/General Grammar as a ScienceLinguistics/General Grammar as a ScienceGeneral Grammar is the rational science of the immutable General Grammar is the rational science of the immutable and general principle of spoken and written language,whatever and general principle of spoken and written language,whatever language this may be General Grammar is a science,because language this may be General Grammar is a science,because its object is rational speculation on the immutable and general its object is rational speculation on the immutable and general principle of language The science of grammar is anterior to principle of language The science of grammar is anterior to all languages in so far as its objects presuppose only the all languages in so far as its objects presuppose only the possibility of languages and are the same as those which guide possibility of languages and are the same as those which guide human reason in its intellectual operations because they are human reason in its intellectual operations because they are eternally true(Bauz 1767).eternally true(Bauz 1767).24Shortcomin