如何撰写学术论文(经典).ppt

,导言,为什么要撰写学术论文？,一篇高水平的学术论文包括哪些要素？,如何撰写高水平的学术论文？,在撰写学术论文过程中的科研道德问题,一、为什么要撰写学术论文？,为什么要撰写学术论文？,基础,研究的成果以,论文形式表现,研究结果,只有,发表,了，,他人才能,重复,、,验证,，结果才,可能成为,知识,提供书面,材料让,同行知道,：,做了,什么,？,为什么这样,做,？,怎样做的,？,发现,了,什么,？,发现意味了什么？,撰写,和,发表论文,是科研,工作,的,最后一道工序,发表论文,的,质量,与,数量,：,衡量水平和效率的客观标准,创新性,创新是一种科学发现,二十世纪初量子论诞生；,四十年代末至五十年代初发明晶体管；,五十年代发现,DNA,双螺旋结构,八十年代末,PCR,技术的发明,创新性,Nature：,创新是科研成果,新颖，引人注意,（出人意料或令人吃惊），而且该项研究看来在该领域之外具有广泛的意义，无论是报道一项,突出的发现,，还是某一,重要的问题的实质性进展,的第一手报告，均应,使其他领域的科学家感兴趣,。,Science：,创新是指对自然或理论提出新见解，而,不是对已有研究结论的再次论证,，内容,激动,人心并富有,启发性,，具有广泛的科学兴趣。具体而言，就是说在已,沉寂,的研究领域提出,创新思想,；在十分活跃的研究领域取得,重大进展,或者是将原先彼此分离的研究领域融合在一起。,创新性,如何体现创新,：一篇论文或一项研究课题，规模不一定很大，但研究一定要深入，结论一定要深刻，要能反映研究者独到的见解。,可读性,Nature：,来稿应,清楚、简练,，以便让其他领域的读者和母语为非英语的读者能够,读懂,。,在投稿之前，请从事其他学科研究的同事对最终文稿在清楚易懂方面提供意见往往很有用。,Nature,的编辑常常建议修改并重写,论文的摘要和引言,保证文章和图片对非该领域的读者明确、能读懂。,Nature,一再申明：,凡不符合他们要求的稿件，毋需深入阅读即行退稿,。,本世纪初，,Hilbert,由于提出23个数学难题而名声大振。,何谓一个好的数学选题？“清晨当你漫步时，能向你遇到的第一位行人用10分钟时间解释清楚的数学选题”,简明、清楚、易懂！,可读性：使读者能够明了你要说的什么问题，是怎样着手解决的，并不需要读者非得全面理解你的论文的全部内容。,什么是可读性,可读性包括：,结论的,可靠性,：实质性进展？阶段性成果的指导意义？,构思的严密性和写作的,逻辑性,：解释学术思想，介绍研究背景,论述的,生动性,：,文字和图表的,规范性,：数据的取舍和图表的设计,论文格式的,标准性,：严格按照,Guide for authors,信息量,Chinese Physics Letters：,“要尽可能多地给出有关研究的信息，尽可能少地运用,investigate（,调查），,Study（,研究），,discuss（,讨论）等词。,如：“,The acid concentration is 25 g/L,就比“,The acid concentration is measured”,包含更多的信息量。,避免或少使用“,it is shown,it is obvious”,等冗余词语,信息量,读之前或者不知道，或者模糊不清或者不确切的知识，在读过该文之后不仅获得新知识，还消除了模糊不清或不确切之处，就说明这篇文章包含较多的信息量。,如：“多点测量”的信息量要比“6点测量”少得多，前者给出的是模糊的、不确切的信息，而后则是清楚的、确切的信息,论文篇幅的限制,新的学术思想，实验，发现等结果决定论文信息量,篇幅的严格限制，可删除那些与文章主题关系不大的或次要的内容,篇幅限制：重新构思论文的框架，选择最重要的素材，采纳最恰当的表述方式并对文字的叙述仔细推敲。,Watson,与,Crick,发现,DNA,双螺旋结构的论文发表在,Nature,，只有约500字和一幅,DNA,的双螺旋图；这篇论文使作者获得了诺贝尔生物医学奖。,参考文献,SCI(Science Citation Index)：,美国宾州的科学信息研究所（,Institute for Scientific in formation，ISI）,按论文被引用的次数来评价研究成果的思想,SCI,它除了收录论文的作者、题目、源期刊、摘要、关键词之位外，还将论文所列的参考文献全部收录下来，可以勾画一篇论文同其他论文之间的学术联系,期刊的影响因子,期刊的影响因子（,Impact Factor，IF）：,某一期刊在连续两年内发表的论文总数为,A，,第三年它被引用的次数为,B，,影响因子,IF=B/A，,意指该刊两年内所发表的论文在第三年被引用的平均次数，反映了该期刊在世界范围内的影响。,在不同刊物上发表文章其难易程度相差可能很大，参考文献对计算影响因子和评价论文水平所引起的巨大作用。,不能脱离学科分类来看,IF。,如何列举参考文献,一定要将产生新的学术思想之前最重要的文献列举出来，说明当时的研究所达到的水平；,在研究工作开展中，受哪些文献资料的启发，从哪些论文中获得了教益，促进了研究进度，属于这类的文献均应列出。,写论文时应对论文涉及的学科内容进行检索，看看是否遗漏了重要的相关文献。,列出参考文献的重要性,编辑和审稿人根据参考文献，初步判断该论文的水平以及作者对有关学科的背景知识水平,在一定程度上也可以判断作者的科学道德，如果未能列出密切相关的主要文献，读者、编辑和审稿人可能会看作是一种不良学风。参考文献关系到论文的可信度和作者的声誉。,国内一些低档次期刊对参考文献极不重视。,国内的主要问题,1、为了省事，转引二手文献，既不核对，自己也没有看过或浏览过,2、只引自己的论文，是自负又是无知的表现。,3、阅读的是中文文献，引用的是外文文献。,4、引用文献中近三年之内的比例少。,署名和致谢,优秀科技论文的署名反映了作者的科学道德，应经得起时间的考验。论文作者和参与工作的人应区别开。,致谢：国内一般是感谢基金支持。课题组的集体力量、同行的学术交流等等都应当致谢。,致谢不是可有可无。论文公开发表后，就用书面形式记载了你的科研成果，同时也记下了你的科研道德，,三、如何撰写高水平的学术论文？,What is the,major question,addressed in this paper?,Is this question,important and why,?,What are the,approaches,used in this paper,and whether they are,adequate,for the questions?,What are the,novel idea,or using,innovative approaches,?,What is the,concept,coming out of this paper?,Do the results presented,support this new concept,?,怎样阅读科技论文,I,ntroduction,M,ethods,R,esults,a,nd,D,iscussion(,IMRAD,),I,:What and why?,研究什么问题？为什么研究这个问题？,M,：How?,如何研究的？,R,：What?,发现了什么？,D,：What?,发现意味着什么？,科技论文的基本结构,重要性,体现创新点,包含所有关键词,吸引人,用动词、句子,Important/significant,Unexpected/unusual,Functional,Simple,Straight forward,Specific,标题,最好不用“的研究”、“的意义”、“的发现”、“的特征”、“的讨论”、“的分析”等词；某某问题的研究、初步研究,用论文中的主要结论作为标题,写文章的目的,研究过程和使用的方法,主要结果和结论。基础研究应体现创新，但不宜过分强调；应用研究要提出应用前景。,不要把文中内容照搬,重要事实开头，避免第一人称或辅助从句,过去时叙述作者工作，现在时表达主要结论,效果：国外同行根据英文摘要和图表，可以大致看懂全文。,摘要,前言,(1)“为什么要做?”简要回顾本文所涉及到的科学问题的研究历史，阐述本课题的研究目的。,(2)“别人做了什么工作?存在什么问题?”应当对国内外在本课题上的研究作一总结。总结用表的形式比较好，再辅以适当的论述。不要引一大堆参考文献，要引自己看过的参考文献，这一点请特别注意。,(3)“准备做什么?”针对他人研究工作中存在的问题，提出自己的思路和研究内容，扼要交代本研究所采用的方法和技术手段等，强调研究的重要性。,丙酮酸作为一种重要的工业原料，不仅在化工、制药及农用化学品工业中有着广泛的用途，在食品保健业也具有巨大的市场潜力。最近，广东太阳神集团以丙酮酸钙制成减肥胶囊即为一例。日益增长的市场需求，使得研究者对发酵法生产丙酮酸的兴趣不断增大1。,（为什么要做）,球拟酵母(,Torulopsis,),的维生素营养缺陷型具有大量积累丙酮酸的潜力，曾有一些学者研究过溶氧对其产酸性能的影响。,Miyata,和,Yonehara,认为供氧不足会造成丙酮酸产量下降，而乙醇产量显著增加2；,Hua,和,Shimizu,等则利用代谢通量分析方法研究了不同溶氧水平下,Torulopsis glabrata,胞内的代谢流分配3,4。作者在前期工作中也发现，较高的溶氧有利于丙酮酸的积累5。,（别人做了什么工作?）,但是，若要实现丙酮酸发酵过程高产量、高产率和高生产强度的统一，溶氧应当高到什么程度，在发酵过程中应当采取何种控制策略，这是已有文献尚未阐明的问题。,（存在什么问题?）,Torulopsis glabrata,WSH-IP12,是一株能够积累丙酮酸的多重维生素营养缺陷型6。作者对其进行诱变改良，获得了一株产丙酮酸性能更佳的,T.,glabrata,突变株,WSH-IP3037。,在优化了培养基中维生素浓度的基础上8，本文首先分析了不同体积传氧系数下(溶氧均高于50%),WSH-IP303,发酵的动力学特征，根据主要动力学参数(,m、,qs,和,qp,),的变化特性提出了分阶段供氧控制模式。然后，实验验证了该模式在实现丙酮酸高产量和高产率的统一上的有效性，并对不同供氧方式下细胞的代谢活性进行了讨论。,（准备做什么?）,举例,Glutathione,(g-,GluCysGly,reduced form GSH)is the major non-protein,thiol,compound in living cells,including human,yeast and bacterial cells.In contrast to the extensive study of the cellular functions of GSH in,eukaryotic,cells,relatively little is known about GSH in prokaryotes,except for,Escherichia coli,.In this organism GSH was found to be involved in the resistance to osmotic stress(23),oxidative stress(4,24)and toxic,electrophiles,(9).Fahey et al.(7)reported that GSH was found in many gram-negative bacteria but was lacking in most of the gram-positive bacteria,except,Lactococcus lactis,and Streptococcus,agalatiae,.Those organisms were thought to synthesize GSH,since the total intracellular amount was much higher than the total amount detected in the medium.Subsequently,Newton et al.(17)concluded that streptococci and,enterococci,must have the capacity to synthesize GSH,because the high GSH content of those strains,up to 11 micromole per gram of dry cell,could not be exclusively achieved by import of GSH from medium.However,these authors did not measure the activities of g-,glutamylcysteine synthetase,and,glutathione synthetase,which would have supplied direct evidence for the existence of a,glutathione,biosynthetic system.On the other hand,by supplementing 35S,Cys,and 35SGSH in chemically defined medium,Wiederholt,and Steele(29)showed that L.,lactis ssp,.,cremoris,Z8 takes up GSH efficiently from the medium but is unable to synthesize it,whereas strain C2 could neither import nor synthesize GSH.,In this study we aim to characterize GSH accumulation and its role in lactic acid bacteria.Defined starter cultures of L.,lactis,are of great economic importance in the bulk production of Cheese.As a facultative anaerobe,strains of L.,lactis,very often encounter a challenge from oxygen and they have evolved several systems,e.g.NADH,oxidase,/NADH,perosidase,system,to survive this challenge(6).The,glutathione,-dependent reduction system is responsible for maintaining the reduced environment and plays an important role against oxidative stress in E.,coli,and S.,cerevisiae,(4).However,the physiological role of GSH in L.,lactis,or even in gram-positive bacteria,remains unknown except that Sherrill and Fahey(22)found the cellular,glutathione,of Streptococcus,mutans,ATCC 33402 protected cells against growth inhibition caused by a specific,thiol,oxidizing agent,diamide,.We therefore examined the presence of GSH and,glutathione,-dependent enzymes,e.g.,glutathione reductase,(GR),in different strains of L.,lactis,.All the subspecies of dairy L.,lactis,were unable to synthesize GSH but some strains could import it from the medium.In addition,glutathione reductase,was observed to be a ubiquitous enzyme in L.,lactis,and the activity of this enzyme was sensitive to oxygenation.Using L.,lactis,SK11 as a model strain,we demonstrated that stationary phase cells with intracellular GSH had a strong resistance against H2O2 treatment compared to cells without intracellular GSH,which exhibited as a high survival and a shortened lag phase as well.Furthermore,the lag phase difference upon H2O2 treatment was found to be dependent on the ability to take up,glutathione,in the 16 tested strains of L.,lactis,.To our best knowledge,this is the first report with respect to a clear physiological role of,glutathione,in lactic acid bacteria.In addition,our insights on the presence and protection role of GSH in L.,lactis,could be applied to dairy industry,e.g.screening L.,lactis,which could take up,glutathione,as a starter for cheese production.,材料与方法,材料与方法是论文中非常重要的一个环节。国外期刊对此尤其重视，国内限于文章篇幅，对此要求不是很严格。,材料与方法让他人看到你的论文后能重复研究工作。,结果,在结果的开始部分简单介绍原理和实验目的,按照图表，看图说明，描述具体结果。不能遗漏，按照结果在正文和图表中的逻辑顺序。,实验结果的顺序，绝不是按获得数据的先后排列，而是要按企图说明问题的逻辑顺序排列,。,要学会合理使用图、表和文字说明。,要敢于舍弃不必要的数据！,What do we learn from this research?,概括主要发现，不要重复前言和结果,引用可以支持你的文章，但不会影响或降低文章的创新性,主要缺点（或局限性）是什么？为什么？,不要做太多假设，不要夸大不能被实验数据完全支持的结论,在文章的最后突出研究的重要性,！,讨论,The results in the present study may,have a number of implications,in the cell biology of tyrosine kinase receptors.,First,we report the.To our knowledge,this is the first demonstration for.Thus,our results suggest a cross-talk between Ca,2+,and tyrosine kinase signaling pathways.,Second,the present study reveals an important regulatory effect of.It will be interesting to determine whether.,Finally,we show that.Xxx.Taken together,these results suggest a general role of tyrosine kinase in the endocytosis of growth factor receptors.,There are,three main findings,in the present study.,First,we report a GDNF-induced long-term facilitation of neurotransmitter release at the neuromuscular synapses.,Second,we show that the effect of GDNF on synaptic transmission is mediated by an increase in the expression of the,Ca,2+,-,binding protein frequenin.,Finally,we demonstrate that GDNF and frequenin facilitate synaptic transmission by enhancing N-type,Ca,2+,channel activation,leading to an enhancement of,Ca,2+,influx.,Thus,this study has identified,for the first time,a molecular target that mediates the long-term,synaptic action of a neurotrophic factor.,Our findings may also provide new insights,into the regulatory mechanisms of neurotransmitter release.,举例,图,FIG.2 Growth curves of,L.lactis,SK11 in the absence(open symbols)or the presence(closed symbols)of 0.2 mM GSH.An overnight CDM culture was inoculated into fresh CDM supplemented with or without GSH with an inoculum size of 5%(v/v).The sample identifications(A,B,C,D,E,and F)were used to denote the growth phases,at which samples were withdrawn for investigating the H,2,O,2,resistance(FIG.3),表,参考文献,朱日祥,刘春,朱岗昆.极性倒转频率及其分布规律.科学通报,1990,35(4)：374-375,Watts D R,Watts G C,Bramall,A M.Cretaceous and Early Tertiary,paleomagnetic,results from the Antarctic Peninsula.Tectonics,1984,3(3)：333-346,英语名字的三种规范：“,Yin Li”,“LI Yin”,“Li,Yin”,Li Y,Chen J,Lun,S.,Li,Y.,Chen,J.,Lun,S.,Li,Y.,J.Chen,and S.,Lun,.,导师和学生讨论论文的基本构思、框架、插图；学生说明其实验结果的创新点；决定投寄何种杂志。,学生向导师提供与该课题有关的主要综述和原始论文（2030篇）。,由学生本人撰写论文的初稿，送交导师。,论文撰写的程序,导师对初稿作出评论；请学生补充实验数据，并提出修改意见，但通常并不立即修改。,参考导师评论和修改意见，学生撰写第二稿，送交导师。,导师在第二稿基础上进行修改，部分内容完全重写，交回学生，请学生提出修改意见（用不同字体标明），形成第三稿。,论文撰写的程序,导师与学生对第三稿进行讨论后，由导师拟就第四稿，交回学生再评论和修改。,对学生的评论和修改意见作认真考虑后，拟就第五稿（半定稿），请学生评论、修改。,导师最后定稿（第六稿），并对英文作仔细润色。,由学生严格按投寄杂志的要求整理定稿、送审。,论文撰写的程序,高水平期刊的审稿程序,Pre-submission inquiry,Submit/cover letter,Initial screen,Send out for reviews,Reject/soft reject/revise,Rebuttal,Revise again,Accept,significance/importance,original and innovative,Solid and rigorous,unusual/surprising,general interests,Initial screening,You,Editors,main findings,significance,suggested reviewers,“not to review”list,who have read,投稿信,Be calm about reviewers criticisms.,Always make editor your friend,Never argue with reviewers,Try to do everything that reviewers ask,Seize the opportunity when reviewers make mistakes,文章的修改,导师和学生对评审意见逐条进行讨论，决定如何答复，是否需作补充实验。,由学生拟出答复意见,。,如何答复修改意见,文章未审就退稿,Dear Editor,I would appreciate if you could reconsider to review our manuscript,“111.We feel strongly that this is an important subject that touches one of the central dogmas in neuroscience:xxx.It is also very timely,given the publication of the paper by X and Y entitled“222”in the latest issue of Nature Neuroscience.In this paper,the authors xxx.They claimed that xxx.When a paper this provocative has been published by a high profile journal like Nature Neuroscience,we believe that it is worth giving a benefit of doubts.It will be helpful if there are papers that consider other alternative interpretations,or attempt to replicate in the same or different systems.,We have observed similar xxx,but we have a completely different interpretation.We found that 1)xxx 2)xxx;3)xxx.Thus,our paper raises the possibility that xxx reported by X and Y were due to xxx.Specifically,we would like you to consider the following two issues:First,X and Y used aaa,while we used bbb.sssssssss.Second,ccc used by X and Y may not be so specific.,In addition to the drastically different opinions regarding xxx,we feel that our findings on xxx is also significant in yyy and will be of interests to general readers of Nature Neuroscience.We therefore did not write our paper to directly challenge the paper by X and Y.However,we will be willing to re-write the paper in ways you think that will help debate on this important issue.,Dear Dr.xx,We received with some surprise your letter of November 4,rejecting this manuscript on the basis of one reviewers opinion which you“found persuasive”.We wish to indicate our dissatisfaction with this reviewers comments,which appear to ignore the new experiments submitted as part of the revised manuscript.,This reviewer states:“111.”This was precisely the point of the xxx experiment which indicated that there were no such deficits.,This reviewer further states:“222.”Again,this is a mystifying statement as the detailed rebuttal accompanying this letter described the xxx.Did the reviewer not understand that xxx?,Finally,concerning the proposal for a xxx experiment,we believe that you and this reviewer already know that xxx.Thus,it is impossible to do such experiments.,While we recognize that the final decision is yours,we feel that reviewer#1 is being unreasonable.We would greatly appreciate it if you would submit this manuscript,reviewer#1s comments,and our rebuttals,to an additional unbiased reviewer.We would be most surprised if the new reviewer would see the comments of the reviewer#1 as reasonable,but if he/she did so,we would accept a negative decision gracefully.,文章审后被退稿,每年精读50篇原文，200篇摘要。,仔细体会，熟记一些惯用写法。,勤于思考，勤于实践。,开拓视野：他山之石，可以攻玉。,如何写好科技论文？,四、撰写学术论文过程中的科研道德问题,一.撰写论文违规行为的表现,1.抹煞前人成果,自我夸张宣传,2.伪造或篡改原始实验数据,3.抄袭、剽窃他人成果,4.一稿两投甚至多投,二.如何对待错误的结果和结论,a.,故意贬低前人工作而抬高自己,b.“,国际上首次”,c.“,国内首创”，“填补国内空白”,抹煞前人成果，自我夸张宣传,1、,经得起后人重复,2,、,伪造的一套数据必然会与其它真实数据互不兼容,3、不能为了说明自己企图说明的问题而任意修改原始数据,3、全部或部分剽窃，翻译的问题（综述）,伪造或篡改原始数据、抄袭、剽窃,a.,国际上的惯例：一篇论文绝不允许同时投向不同刊物,b.,变相的多投：相同的数据改头换面，不同的组合方式（自我剽窃）,c.,国内和国外综述性论文：,一稿两投或多投,1、简短的更正,2、在以后发表的有关论文中实事求是地承认并且改正错误,3、声明撤回原论文,如何对待错误的结果和结论,一篇学术论文的产生，要经历学术思想的形成，实验，数据分析，论文写作，投稿，修改，校对，发表这样一个漫长的过程。往往从做实验到论文发表出来需要2年甚至更长的时间。唯其艰难，所以才有乐趣。,在研究生期间发表高水平的学术论文，并不仅仅是一种学术要求，更多的是一种自我挑战。若干年后，这种经历一定会成为你们记忆中宝贵的财富。,结束语,