土木工程专业英语课后题答案.doc

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英译汉

Lesson One Sandcrete is a yellow-white building material made from Portland cement and sand in a ratio of circa 1:8.It is the main building material for walls of single-storey buildings (such as houses and schools)in countries such as Ghana and Nigeria. Measured strengths fo commercially available Sandcrete blocks in Nigeria were found to be between 0.5 and 1 N/mm,which is well below the 3.5 N/mm that is legally required there. This may be due to the need of the manufacturers to keep the price low,and since the main cost-factor is the Portland cement, they reduce that, which results in a block that starts behaving more like loose sand.
翻译：sandcrete是黄白色建筑材料制成的波特兰水泥和沙子的比例大约1: 8.it是主要的建筑墙体材料的单层建筑（如房屋和学校）在加纳和尼日利亚等国家。测量优势的商用sandcrete块在尼日利亚被发现之间的0.5和1牛顿/毫米，这是远远低于3.5牛顿/毫米，是法律所要求的有。这可能是由于需要的厂家保持价格低，因为主要cost-factor是波特兰水泥，他们减少，从而在一块，开始表现得更像松砂。
Lesson Two By definition, the compressive strength of a material is that value of uniaxial compressive stress reached when the material fails completely. The compressive strength is usually obtained experimentally by means of a compressive test. The apparatus used for this experiment is the same as that used in a tensile test. However, rather than applying a uniaxial tensile load, a uniaxial compressive load is applied. As can be imagined, the specimen (usually cylindrical )is shortened as well as spread laterally. In general, compressive strengths are usually greater than tensile strengths.An example of a material with a much higher compressive strength than tensile strength is concrete. Ceramics typically have a much higher compressive strength than tensile strength. Composite materials tend to have higher tensile strengths than compressive strengths. One such example is glass fiber epoxy matrix composite.
根据定义，材料抗压强度是价值的单轴压应力达到材料时完全失败。抗压强度通常是获得实验的方式压缩试验。该仪器用于本实验所使用的相同的拉伸试验。然而，而不是采用单轴拉伸，单轴压缩载荷应用。可以想像，标本（通常圆柱形）缩短，以及横向蔓延。一般来说，通常是更大的抗压强度比抗拉强度。例材料的抗压强度远大于其抗拉强度是混凝土。陶瓷通常具有抗压强度远大于其抗拉强度。复合材料往往有较高的拉伸强度比抗压强度。其中一个例子是玻璃纤维/环氧树脂基复合材料。
第三课 原文：
Temporary cantilevers are often used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever，but the completed structure does mot act as a cantilever.This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built(e.g. ,over a busy roadway or river, or in a seep valley ). So some truss arch bridges are built from each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages. Many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support.
翻译：临时悬臂通常用于建设。部分建成结构创建一个悬臂。，但完成结构并不作为一个悬臂。这是非常有用的当临时支架，或支架，不能用来支持结构，它正在建立（例如，在一个繁忙的道路或河流，或在冷泉谷）。所以一些桁架拱桥是建立从每侧悬臂直到跨越达到彼此然后顶除了强调他们在压缩之前最后加入。几乎所有的斜拉桥采用悬臂这是他们的一个主要优点。许多箱梁桥分段建造，或短。这种建筑类型有助于平衡悬臂施工的桥梁是建立在两个方向从一个单一的支持。
第四课 原文：A floor is the walking surface of a room or vehicle. Floors vary from simple dirt in a cave to many-layered surfaces using modern technology. Floors may be stone, woos, bamboo, metal,or any material that can hold a person's weight. The levels of a building are often referred to as floors and are described in the article storey.This article describes the structure of floors.Floors typically consist of a subfloor for support and a floor covering used to give a good walking surface. In modern buildings the subfloor often has electrical wiring, plumbing, and other services built in. Because floors meet many needs, some essential to safety, floors are built to strict building codes. Where a special floor structure like a floating floor is laid upon another floor then both nay be referred to as subfloors.
翻译：一楼是一个房间或车辆行走的表面。楼层不同从简单的污垢山洞中多层次的表面使用现代技术。地板可能是石，求爱，竹，金属，或任何材料，可容纳一个人的体重。各级建筑通常是指地板和文章中描述层。本文介绍的结构层。地板通常由一个底层地板和地板覆盖物为支持，用来提供一个良好的表面行走。在现代建筑的底层地板往往有电线，水暖，和其他服务建设。因为地板满足许多需求，一些基本的安全，地面是建立严格的建筑法规。在一个特殊的地板结构像一个浮动地板铺设后，另一层则不称为底层地板。
Lesson Five A column in structural engineering is a vertical structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture "column" refers to such a structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative or triumphant feature but need nor be supporting any structure e.g. A statue on top.
一列在结构工程是一个垂直结构元素传输，通过压缩，结构重量以上的其他结构元件下面。用于风或地震工程，列可能被设计抵抗侧向力。其他压缩成员经常被称为“柱”，因为类似的应力条件。列经常被用来支持梁或拱门，上部分墙壁或天花板上休息。在建筑“列”是指这样的一个结构性的因素，也有一定的比例和装饰功能。一列可能也有装饰或胜利的特征，但需要也不支持任何结构如雕像上。
第六课：In physics ,the concept of force is used to describe how a mass is affected，be it in form of acceleration or mechanical stress.Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push or pull that can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform. Thrust is any force which increases the velocity of the object. Drag is any force which decreases the velocity of any object.The tendency of a force to cause changes in rotational speed about an axis is called torque.Force has both magnitude and direction,making it a vector quantity.Newton’s second law states that an object with a constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net force acting upon and in inverse proportion to its mass.
翻译：在物理学中，力的概念是用来描述如何大规模的影响，它在形式的加速或机械应力。也可以说是由直观的概念，如推或拉，会导致一个有质量的物体改变其速度（其中包括开始移动从静止状态），即，加速，或可使柔性物体变形。推力是任何力量，增加物体的速度。拖动任何力量下降的速度的任何物体。该趋势的力量造成改变转速的轴被称为扭矩。力有大小和方向，使它成为一个向量的数量。牛顿第一定律指出，一个物体的质量将不断加快的比例的净力和成反比的群众。
第七课：Framing, in construction known as light-frame construction, is a building technique based around vertical structural members, usually called studs, which provide a stable frame to which interior and exterior wall coverings are attached, and covered by a roof comprising horizontal ceiling joists and sloping rafters (together forming a truss structure) or manufactured pre-fabricated roof trusses-all of which are covered by various sheathing materials to give weather resistance.Modern light-frame structures usually gain strength from rigid panels (plywood and other plywood-like composites such as OSB) used to form all or part of wall sections,but until recently carpenters employed various forms of diagonal bracing(called “wind braces”) to stabilize walls. Diagonal bracing remains a vital interior part of many roof systems, and in-wall wind braces are required by building codes in many municipalities or by individual state laws in the United States.
翻译：构架系统，称为轻型框架结构，是建筑技术在垂直结构的成员，通常称为螺柱，它提供了一个稳定的框架，内外墙覆盖连接，和覆盖的屋顶由水平天花板搁栅和斜椽（共同形成一个桁架结构）或制造的预制屋顶trusses-all其中是由各种护套材料给耐候性。现代轻型结构通常获得力量的刚性板（胶合板和胶合板样的复合材料，如定向刨花板）用来形成的全部或部分墙段，但直到最近，木匠采用各种形式的斜撑（称为“风声”）稳定墙壁。斜撑，仍然是一个重要的内部部分许多屋顶系统，并在风撑所要求的建筑规范在许多城市或州的法律在美国。
第八课：A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which must be carefully considered. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, but it is not so simple a matter as trying to get the other side to agree to as much as possible in exchange for as little as possible. The time element in construction means that a delay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delay can be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be designed to ensure that each side is capable of performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set out clear expectations and clear paths to accomplishing those expectations are far more likely to result in the project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted contracts lead to confusion and collapse.
翻译：建设工程项目是一个复杂的网络的合同及其他法律义务，每一个都必须仔细考虑。合同交换是一套义务双方或多方之间，但它不是那么简单的问题，试图让对方同意尽可能多尽可能少的交换。时间因素在施工手段，延迟成本钱，并在案件的延迟瓶颈，可以是非常昂贵的。因此，合同的设计必须确保每一方能够执行规定的义务。合同规定，明确的期望，和清晰的路径实现这些期望的更有可能是造成项目的顺畅，而误签的合同导致混乱和崩溃。
第九课：Cement is made by heating limestone（calcium carbonate） with small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln,in a process known as calcination,whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide,or lime,which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker,' is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement,' the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete.
翻译：水泥是由加热石灰石（碳酸钙）与少量其他材料（如粘土）在1450°碳窑中，这一个过程称为焙烧，即一个二氧化碳分子是从解放碳酸钙形成氧化钙，或石灰，这是与其他材料混合已包括在结构。由此产生的物质，称为' '熟料，然后地面与少量石膏制成粉末，使普通波特兰水泥，'最常用类型的水泥（通常称为技术）。波特兰水泥的基本要素，混凝土，砂浆和大多数非专业灌浆。最常见的用途是在波特兰水泥混凝土生产。
第十课： Common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction. Too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard. As rust takes up greater volume than the steel from which it was formed, it causes severe internal pressure on the surrounding concrete, leading to cracking, spalling, and ultimately, structural failure. This is a particular problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges built in areas where salt is applied to roadways in winter, or in marine applications. Epoxy-coated,galvanized or stainless steel rebars may be employed in these situations at greater initial expense, but significantly lower expense over the service life of the project.
翻译：普通钢筋是由未回火，使它容易生锈。通常混凝土盖能够提供一个PH值高于12避免腐蚀反应。太少的混凝土盖可以妥协这个后卫从表面通过碳化。太多的混凝土盖可以造成更大的裂缝宽度也妥协的地方警卫。锈占用更大的数量比钢从它的形成，它造成严重的内部压力导致周围的混凝土，开裂，剥落，最终，结构破坏。这是一个特殊问题的具体接触海水，在桥梁建造在盐领域应用到公路在冬季，或在海洋应用。环氧涂层，镀锌钢或不锈钢钢筋可受聘在这些情况下，在更大的初始费用，但显着降低费用的服务项目的生命。

第十一课 原文：
Permissible stress design (in USA constriction more commonly called allowable stress design) is a design philosophy used by civil engineers. The designer ensures that the stresses developed in a structure due to service load s do not exceed the elastic limit. This limit is usually determined bu ensuring that stresses remain within the limits through the use of factors of safety . The permissible stress design approach has generally been replaced internationally by limit state design (also known as ultimate stress design,or in USA , Load and Resistance Factor Design, LRFD) as far as structural engineering is considered,except for some isolated cases.
翻译：容许应力设计（在美国收缩更通常被称为容许应力设计）是一种设计理念，使用的土木工程师。设计师确保强调发展一个结构由于服务负载不超过弹性极限。这一限制通常是不保证应力保持在限制通过使用安全因素。容许应力设计方法已经普遍取代了国际的极限状态设计（又称极限应力设计，或在美国，荷载和抗力系数设计法，）就结构工程被认为是，除了一些孤立的案件。
第十二课 原文：
Many properties have considerable problems with regards to improper bounding, miscalculations in past surveys, titles, easements and wildlife crossings. Also many properties are created from multiple division of a larger piece over the course of years,and with every additional division the risk of miscalculation increases.The result can be abutting properties not coinciding with adjacent parcels,resulting in hiatuses(gaps) and overlaps.The art cones in when a surveyor must solve a puzzle using pieces that do not exactly fit together. In these cases the solution is based upon the research and interpretation of the surveyor , and following established procedures for resolving discrepancies.
翻译：许多性能有相当大的问题作为不当的边界，计算错误在过去的调查，标题，地役权和野生动物通道。也有许多特性是由多个分一块较大的过程中来，并与每增加一分风险的错误增加。结果可能是毗邻的性质不相吻合的相邻的包裹，导致裂缝（隙）和重叠。艺术锥时，检验员必须解决一个难题，用片不完全适合在一起。在这些情况下，解决方案是基于研究和解释的测量，并按照既定程序解决差异。
第十三课 原文：
Clay minerals are typically formed over long periods of time by the gradual chemical weathering of rocks,usually silicate-bearing low concentrations of carbonic acid and other diluted solvents. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the weathering rock after leaching through upper weathered layers.In addition to the weathering process, some clay minerals are formed by hydrothermal activity. Clay deposits may be formed in place as residual deposits , but thick deposits usually are formed as the result of a secondary sedimentary deposition process after they have been eroded and transported from their original location of formation. Clay deposits are typically associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lake and marine deposits. Primary clays, also known as kaolins, are located at the site of formation. Secondary clay deposits hae been moved by erosion and water from their primary location.
翻译：粘土矿物通常形成了很长一段时间内逐步化学风化的岩石，通常硅酸盐低浓度的碳酸等稀释溶剂。这些溶剂，通常呈酸性，通过迁移后通过淋溶风化岩风化层上。除了风化过程中，粘土矿物形成的热液活动。粘土矿床可能形成于所残留的存款，但存款通常形成的结果辅助沉积沉积过程后，他们已被侵蚀和运输从原来的位置的形成。粘土矿床通常与非常低能量沉积环境等大的湖泊和海洋沉积物。原发性粘土，亦称高岭土，位于网站的形成。次生粘土矿床已经被移动的侵蚀和水从他们的主要位置。
第十四课 原文：
Wall framing in house construction includes the vertical and horizontal members of exterior walls and interior partitions,both of bearing walls and non-bearing walls.These "stick" members, referred to as studs, wall plates and lintels (headers), serve as a nailing base for all covering material and support the upper floor platforms, which provide the lateral strength along a wall .The platforms may be the boxed structure of a ceiling and roof, or the ceiling and floor joists of the story above .The technique is variously referred to colloquially in the building trades as "stick and box" as or"stick and platform,"or "stick and box "as the sticks (studs) give the structure its vertical support ,and the box shaped floor sections with joists contained within length-long post and lintels (more commonly called headers ),supports the weight of whatever is above ,including the next wall up and the roof above the top story. The planform ,also provides the lateral support against wind and winds the stick walls true and square .Any lower platform supports the weight of the platform and walls above the level of its component headers and joists.
翻译：墙框架房屋建设包括纵向和横向的成员外墙及室内隔断，既承重墙和非承重墙。这些“棒”的成员，被称为钉，墙板和楣石（头），作为一个钉基地全部覆盖材料和支持上层平台，提供横向强度沿墙。该平台可装箱结构，天花板和屋顶，或地板和天花板托梁上面的故事。该技术是指一般在建筑行业为“粘盒”或“棍子和平台，”或“粘盒”为棒（螺栓）给出结构垂直支持，与盒形部分包含在地板托梁length-long后，门楣（俗称头），支持的重量是什么以上，包括下墙壁和屋顶上方顶部的故事。俯视图，还提供横向支持对风和风的粘壁真正和广场。任何较低的平台支持平台的重量和墙的水平之上的组成部分，标题和托梁。
第十六课 原文：
Every earthquake produces different types of seismic waves which travel through rock with different velocities: the longitudinal P-waves (shock-or pressure waves ）,the transverse S-wave (both b